Swastika–a Symbol of Good and Evil

SOCS350-ON November 7, 2008 THE SWASTIKA-A SYMBOL OF GOOD AND EVIL The hackenkreuz, gamma cross, gammadion, St. Brigit’s cross, fylfot cross and swastika are all references to one symbol, the oldest cross in the world. This symbol is represented several thousand years B. C. in multiple cultures. It is not until the 1900’s that the term â€Å"swastika† elicits such a fervor of emotions. It is interesting to contrast the viewpoints of the Chinese community versus the enormity of human passion that ensues in a Jewish community when the symbol is displayed. As cited in Chinese Symbols – Common Five Asian Attributes,http:symbolic-meanings. com/2007/11/01chinese-symbols-commonAncient Chinese symbols and their meanings are a product of a very savvy people who understood the human need to progress in their conjunction with their propensity to link positive change with visual/allegorical concepts. The Chinese believe that crises in one’s life bring the opportunity for change. Symbolism is incorporated in the kanji, more commonly referred to as Chinese characters. Kanji, itself means both crises and opportunity. As many people of China embrace the Buddhist religion, it is an opportunity to discuss the swastika from this point of view. As cited in ReligionFacts; â€Å" The Swastika Symbol in Buddhism† htt//symbolic-meanings. com/2007/11/01chinese-symbols-common Page 2 Swastika In Buddhism, the swastika signifies auspiciousness and good fortune as well as the Buddha’s footprints and the Buddha’s heart. The swastika is said to contain the whole mind of the Buddha and can often be found imprinted on the chest, feet or palms of Buddha images. It is also the first of the 65 auspicious symbols on the footprint of the Buddha. The swastika will also be found in homes, on the doorways to temples, at the beginning of books, in decorative borders and in clothing as well as being carved into Chinese coins. The swastika is seen as a symbol of luck and life. As cited in NewsFinder. org/site/more/swastika â€Å"The Oldest Known Symbol† In Nazi Germany, the swastika became the national symbol. In 1910, a poet and nationalist, Guido von List suggested that the swastika be a symbol for all anti Semitic organizations. On August 7, 1920, at the Salzburg Congress, this flag became the official emblem of the Nazi Party. The actual drawing of the thousands of year old swastika remained the same with one exception after the adoption by the Nazi’s—the exclusive use of the colors black, red and white. The swastika holds a vivid, powerful vision for those of the Jewish community. The impact though now changes from positive and serene as seen with the Chinese community to that of conjuring up memories of the holocaust, a time of horror and hate. The brief appropriation by the Nazi’s of the swastika has forever destroyed the positive a Page 3 Swastika and serene interpretation of this symbol for much of the world but especially for those of Hebrew belief. So deeply imbedded in the minds of those with an ancestry to Judaism that to merely see the swastika is to re-live the stories of the holocaust, the inhumanity and despair. So powerful a symbol is that the swastika can create havoc on one’s limbic system. Though fewer victims are left now from this reign of terror, the legacy lives on to this day and assuredly shall for many generations to come. Two cultures, two moments in time, two opposing interpretations as related to a simple drawing have been discussed. The power is of course not in the drawing, but in the meaning perceived by the drawing. In one culture we see the swastika as life, in the other we see the swastika as a vile destruction of life.

Culture and Educational Policy in Hawaii Essay

American education policy has been formulated and shaped through the three major cartels of institutions. These are social, political and economic which have led to the transitions from one system to another. Although education has profound effects in all the institution, education and politics are seen to have much great effects on each other in terms of policy formulation. Due to the distribution of the political power in the American states, more effects on education systems, requirements and policies are formulated through the political institutions. The American federal government not only checks the economy generating institutions by they are obliged to check on other institutions which includes all the learning academic institutions in ensuring their management is smooth that enhances consolidation of the right composition of the community in term of balancing economic, social and political factors. For the past several decades, the education system in the state has endeavored to have sound political order as a measure of the proliferation of education through innovation of modern knowledge and also in the transfer of the traditional original knowledge, a portrayal of the intimacy of both politics and education. Though education is considered very paramount to all residents, the population of the American comprises of wide number of persons from different races and ethnic groups. This poses very great challenge in creating a learning environment with equality in term of cultural satisfaction. However, through the learning process, the gap between the various ethnic groups with the diversity of culture has been narrowed in private, public and common schools. Despite the struggle to harmonize the education systems in the states, quality of the education has been of prime priority to meet the worlds output in information access and gain that enhance social life. The adaptation of mono-culture by globalization of culture through education systems has not only made the states impoverished but it has also led to specific ethnic groups to get impoverished. Generally, the diversity of culture was initially being abolished through the process of assimilation in United States. The success of it all lied within the choice by an individual by voluntary means; however, there was a milestone for those who were involuntarily being assimilated including the Native American and African Americans among others. The education process was thus going to ultimately be challenged and fail its goals due to the negative view from these communities. The based for education though encountered with difficulty was to trace its way forward by instituting equality with the observations of three main cultural factors for the native Americans that included, protestant ideology, savage-to-civilaztion paradigm of social evolution and final the manifest destiny ideology. The education policy in the Hawaiians was fraud and had inherent discriminatory factors within it. This was policy which was created to exploit and tortures the then native residents in the state. The political stance was eroded with the much pertinent problem more land of expanding the territories politically. Leaders and other prominent favored the oppressive application of the factors of manifest destiny that used segregating in the educational institutions. By imposing segregation policy within the learning organization, the native were barred from knowledge access making the viable for cheap labor in the grabbed agricultural sugar plantations. The segregation policy which was applied in the denied the native Hawaiians from easy educations access. When education centre were available for the whites, the native Hawaiians had to struggles to gain the knowledge which was though to transform their live socially economically and politically. This raised a lot of concern making great men like Jefferson to think of the purpose of education as tool for enslaving the society rather than a freeing them. The education policy created a gap in the society causing stratification of society into several classes whereby the native Hawaiians were forced to the lowest class in all dimension of social, economic and politic concern. This was contrary to the formation of certain schools such as those of brown decision that had the vision of abolishing the disparities in all these factors in the society. Besides the maintaining of the pervasive policy of segregation in Hawaii, this policy has sometime been sandwich to eliminate Hawaiians cultures through changes of the religious believes. Under the disguise of advancing education progressiveness in Hawaii, religious assimilation has played a major role tackily in instituting changes of cultures. The Catholicons and the Protestants tried to battle for their followers which created a better chance for more Hawaiians to have eased way of education under the common schools in the expense and lose of their culture. Though this was far most of merit in opening up learning centre, the natives felt the pinch of having to adapt to the new language that was used as the teaching language making them strained in their understanding. Education systems in Hawaii have great challenges in solving the oppressive policy which for a long time has seen few admissions of the native marginalized communities in those sponsored schools. This call for establishment of more school that are neutral in the cultural institutionalizing neither with hidden motives of praising their own cultures nor superior on traditional basis nor on religious base. It is anticipated that the impingement that have been inflicted on these marginalized population can also be remedied by ensuring that affirmative action of admission to education centers. Reference: Heck, R and Maenette, P. (1998), Culture and Educational Policy in Hawaii: The Silencing of Native Voices: Routledge .

Airtime HTH

We then asked them to rate Airtime HTH on a set of relevant factors based on their current performance. We then correlated both the results to find how the Airtime HTH performed in contrast to its brand Image in the market. Airtime digital TV is an Indian direct-broadcast satellite service provider owned and operated by Birth Airtime. Its satellite service, launched in 2008, transmits digital satellite television and audio to households in India. It uses MPEG-4 digital compression with DVB-SO technology, transmitting using the satellite SEES 108. EYE.As of 28 November 2014, Airtime digital TV has total 383 Channels and Services including 25 HAD channels. Its primary competitors are Dish TV, Data Sky, Evidence duh and cable elevation providers. It has a total subscriber base Of 9. 54 million as Of 30 September 2014 The survey was conducted through online medium. We designed a questionnaire and asked people to fill it. The participants belonged to North Indian states of Punjab, Harlan, Whimsical Pradesh, Attar Pradesh, Delhi and Registrar. The questionnaire was filled by 271 respondents which included people from all the age groups and both the genders.The aim of conducting the research was to know: Market share of Airtime HTH in a sample of the population. Consumer behavior toward the product. Customers preferences for buying Airtime HTH. Driving factors for buying Airtime HTH. Pop holes in the service provided to the customer; and to come up with solutions to further improve the services required by the customer. We conducted live interviews of Airtime set top box dealers in Changer region through which we came to know about the salient features that a customer keeps in mind while buying a HTH service. On the basis of interviews, we included the following issues in this research: C] Price of set top box Ease of installation Number of channels Signal strength User Interface Monthly Charges Ease of payment After sales services Ability to record programs Flexibility in choosing channel packages Offers/schemes provided by Airtime HTH These are the general features that a customer keeps in mind while buying a HTH service, that is why these were included for conducting the survey. Conducting the interviews helped defining the research process.It focused our attention to the specific issues that were required to include in the research. Following are the issues that we have identified which have been included on the survey: Price Brand Image Number of Channels Signal Strength Ease of Installation Ability to Record Program Flexibility in Choosing Channels Offers/Schemes Quality of Sound and Video Importance of the selected issues to research Price: It plays a great role in buying behavior of the customers as one can spend according to on?s income.

Women,crime and criminal justice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Women,crime and criminal justice - Assignment Example Moreover, prisons are the culmination of several oppressions, including, class, ethnicity, indigenous status, and race. There is considerable discrimination against women in prisons, and this chiefly stems from their lesser proportion in the prison population. The security levels in prisons are grossly disproportionate to the lower seriousness of offending, which characterizes women offenders. Another disquieting feature of prisons, vis-Ã  -vis females is their tendency to isolate women to a much greater extent than men. This arises due to the smaller number of incarcerated females, which leads to the presence of fewer prisons in a specific geographical area. As such, women prisoners are subjected to greater social stigma than their male counterparts (Barberet, 2014, p. 163). In addition, prisons pathologize and infantilize females, thereby subjecting them to greater oppression. Hence, women should not be imprisoned for the less serious crimes. In addition, the close similarity in the conditions of women in prison, across the world, has made it possible to formulate international norms and guidelines for prisoners. Several of the international guidelines have suffered setbacks, due to cultural relativity or the imposition of Western standards. Prison standards have not been affected to the same extent by these influences (Barberet, 2014, p. 163). A major cause for this relative insularity is the fact that prisons are predominantly a Western institution that have been imposed via colonialism. As a consequence, the issues created for women in prisons tend to be quite similar across the world. This is despite the disparities in the manner of operation of prisons, the categories of females who are incarcerated, the crimes that these females have been charged with or sentenced for, the resources provided to female prisoners in the prisons, and the problems envisaged by these females

Management And Organization In The Retail Industry Assignment

Management And Organization In The Retail Industry - Assignment Example Wal-Mart is one of the largest retail companies in the country has recorded the highest profits in the past year. Its founder, Sam Walton opened his first Wal-Mart store in the year 1962 (Archtmeyer, 2003). Walton was a major influence in the retail industry when it comes to using technology, for example, Wal-Mart was one of the first retail stores to introduce bar codes, which automated inventory control. Wal-Mart was also one of the first companies to introduce satellite inventory tracking systems.Companies in this industry use different organizational structures, but the divisional structure is the most common (Galbraith, 2002). The divisional structure is made up of different divisions spread out over a geographical area but under one corporation. The divisional organizational structure is also seen in some of the other retail companies like Nordstrom and Amazon. Nordstrom and Amazon are two of the major competitors in the retail marketing industry, rated as some of the top compa nies in the industry. Small-scale retailing companies use the simple structure as their organizational structure. The simple structure is a design that is less formal, lowly departmentalized and has a centralized authority. In the retail marketing industry, sales and marketing personnel make up the majority of the workforce in the retail industry. This is because the main purpose of a retail company is to sell goods and services to consumers, and the only way to increase revenue is to have more sales.

Business research report Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Business report - Research Paper Example What are the responsibilities of the corporate companies with reference to glass ceiling? Based on the literature review and discussions, the paper outlines the recommendations to create a level playing field for the women employees to succeed in their carrier and attain top positions of leadership. The recommendations outlined covers introduction of reforms in the performance scales to avoid discrimination on the basis of gender, introduction of quota system by the government by allocating proportional representation for women in recruitment and promotions to higher positions and introduction of legal reforms by the government for property rights to women in succession. These basic reforms at the company and government level will increase the presence of women in top positions in various organizations, institutions and the government departments. The other barriers enumerated will be shattered down over the period of time, once the fundamental reform process covering these issues ar e carried out. Introduction Purpose of the report The issue of glass ceiling in the context of the developments in technology, telecommunication and media assumes greater significance on account equality of opportunities to the women in the society. Several companies have declared this issue as an objective in their CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) programs. The purpose of the report is to analyze and present the various issues involved in practice and the ways to rectify the position for a better working atmosphere by ensuring equality in opportunity for all in the society for a sustainable development. Scope The scope of the paper is to cover the concept of glass ceiling, the factors leading to this phenomenon in the companies, institutions and government and the responsibilities on the part of the corporate companies or other institutions in fixing up the issue. And as such, the issues extraneous to this objective are covered only to the extent they are relevant to the topic of the discussion. Sources and Methods This report relies mainly on secondary sources for analysis and discussion. The data with reference to glass ceiling are analyzed in the background of the information gathered from the secondary sources which forms the basis for the recommendations. Limitations The psychological factors involved in the study may vary from person to person within the society among males and females. Therefore, perception with regard to the issues could be mostly subjective in nature conditioned by their cultural background, level of education and the individuals’ experience. Therefore, the study can only give broad outlines in its findings and giving specific solution or recommendation to the issue would be difficult. Glass ceiling The discrimination by sex was outlawed in the Civil Rights Act, 1964. The barriers to the advancement of women in employment especially for the leadership positions still exists in various forms though there has been considera ble progress achieved in the lower and middle levels in business organizations and the government departments as per the statistics. Stock, K (2011) states that

Case discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case discussion - Essay Example The approach however conveys high levels of commercial risks because of the momentum that RAN has been gaining and the possible negative effects of the campaigns. The media’s involvement is likely to propagate RAN’s objective to the global society that is also Citigroup’s consumers. Similarly, students’ subscription to RAN identifies its developing potential to influence the society. RAN may therefore succeed in convincing the public that Citigroup is destroying the environment, and therefore the people’s lives. This would harm the bank’s corporate image and reduce its marketability, especially for consumer services. The result will be a reduced revenue level. Ignoring the campaigns with the assumption that they do not succeed will however allow the bank to benefit from project financing besides retaining its consumer market control. It is however a risky assumption (Stanford Graduate School of Business 1- 11). Delaying RAN’s objective by negotiating over few and minor changes to the group’s project financing initiatives is another option. It offers benefits of reducing the group’s proactive campaigns and its effects on the bank’s corporate image and demand for the bank’s consumer services besides sustaining project financing in the short run. The option’s disadvantage is however the already impaired corporate image and its associated effect on demand for consumer products. RAN may decline to the delayed tactics and proceed with the campaigns towards compromised corporate image and reduced demand for consumer services. Its benefits are however average revenues from both consumer services and project financing services. Entering into negotiations over changes that are more significant is another option for the bank. This offers potential benefits of the group’s withdrawal of its campaigns and informing the public of the bank’s interest in corporate

Improving Local Health Care Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Improving Local Health Care - Research Paper Example Community practitioners are also responsible for documenting information concerning a patient’s conditions for treatment in the future. It is a requirement for healthcare practitioners to record a patient’s data to enhance success during operations. This involves the documentation of the patient’s name, age and their condition. This happens before the provision of healthcare services to the patient by a practitioner (Tom, 2001). As discussed in the piece, coordination of various components is necessary in the delivery of healthcare services to the public. Furthermore, technology is fundamental to the delivery of quality services in healthcare facilities. The provision of healthcare services requires the coordination of various stakeholders within the healthcare profession. It is imperative for healthcare practitioners to keep records when conducting their duties (Tom, 2001). Indeed, record keeping is fundamental in the provision of critical care for conditions such as asthma. At the local healthcare facility that I visited, the practitioners were struggling to meet some of the needs of the patients because they were facing challenges prioritizing healthcare services to clients. The absence of an electronic medical record made it difficult for the practitioner to asses my previous record. Besides, the practitioner was having difficulty communicating with his subordinates. Lack of proper policies for handling healthcare issues compromised the delivery of quality healthcare at the facility. The manuals testing kits contributed to pharmaceutical discrepancies at the facility. Additionally, the manual recording system contributed to the difficulties in communication amidst practitioners and professionals from other facilities. Indeed, most of the challenges at the facility required the implementation of sound policies concerning delivery of quality healthcare services (Richard, 2003). Some patients were unhappy with the services

Quality Management Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Quality Management Process - Essay Example "The importance of using a plan in order to guide the firm's communication effort would be able to bring forth a clear, coordinated, memorable, and effective way of interacting with one another" (Draft a Communications Plan, 2006). Based on the data presented in the planning process of the project, an estimated time of at least 330 days could be needed in order to complete the quality communications plan. During the course of this period, the staff and the officials who are leaders of the said projects would be able to complete the tasks required of them. Aside from that, additional changes and revisions could be done within that period. The revisions that should be applied within the project should be done so within schedule and also reason. This is because of the tight project schedule that has been planned in the project. Aside from that, there is also the need to thoroughly examine the outcome of the projects done. Testing the outcome of the said project is also necessary to ensure that it would be exactly as planned. The several steps divided into different categories and these categories would be the basis for the flow of the communication report between the company and the participants for the quality communications plan. ... On the other hand, to save time as the project is in a tight schedule, the report regarding the success of the project should be applied or implemented in a regular basis so that the waiting time would not be that long and that other projects could also be done. In the implementation of the plan, there should only be one resource person from the team that would report to the officials because if there are so many people relaying the information, the management would have a hard time comprehending it. It would also be better if there was some kind of system or a chain of command in relaying the message. Another thing which would be likely included in the quality management process is the budget estimate. A budget estimate seems to be more than the acceptable range because of its urgency to be on time and on schedule. The budget throughout the categories would need to be constant as to oversee that there would be no over-spending done in the project. The starting period would be the difficult part because it needs to be well-established so as the other steps would be next in line therefore, a chunk of the budget should be reserved especially to the start of the project. Despite of that, there would be time to cut back on other cost once the project has been progressing in the direction that it should be heading. Collection of Data in the Quality Communications Plan In order to ensure the implementation of the quality communication plan, certain data and information are needed to be collected. Aside from that, these data would also be a guide in determining whether or not such plans are effective or not. Here are some of the data and information needed upon the implementation of the quality

The Internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Internet - Essay Example As the discussion stresses the days when there was long distance communication either through telephone or letters have long gone. The internet keeps people globally connected and allows them to communicate throughout the day without any additional costs. It offers software, which allows people to correspond with each other through chatting online, e-mail, instant messages, video chatting and social networking. Communication from any corner of the globe has now become easy, convenient and hassle free. This paper declares that in the recent years communication has become revolutionized with the introduction of video chat. Skype, a video chat software has allowed people to converse through video conferencing, instant messaging and sharing files. With millions of active users worldwide Skype has become a leading internet communication application. One can see their loved ones live or have business meetings online regardless of being thousands of miles away. Lastly, internet helps in the maintenance of communication at all levels through social networking sites such as facebook, orkut, twitter and etc. It helps unite old friends, distant relatives as well as make new acquaintances. Internet provides access to all kinds of recourses. It is a virtual library, travel agency, a shopping mall as well as a bank. One can obtain any information regarding any topic without having to go to a library. There are many sites available that provide authentic information regarding any school project.

Reliability and Validity Essay Example for Free

Reliability and Validity Essay Reliability is defined as the consistency of the measurement. The term can also be defined as the extent to which one instrument can be used in a similar way, every time it is utilized under similar circumstance, and with similar subjects. This is what it means to say that the measurements or the instruments are reliable. It is also the repeatability of measurement. Any measurement is considered reliable where the results of the same test are the same. It is crucial to note that reliability cannot be measured, but it is given as an estimate. To find out the reliability of a measurement, it is important to carry out an experiment more than once or use the same instrument for similar experiments. There are two basic kinds of reliability: test/retest and internal consistency. The first type is the most traditional approach in estimating reliability. The argument behind this approach is that there should be similar results in test 1 and test 2. The three basic concepts of this approach are: the measuring instrument should be implemented in two differing tests for every subject; the relationship between the two tests should be accurately computed; and the assumption that the fundamental condition should be made between the two tests. The other approach is the estimation of reliability by listing queries in a questionnaire that gauge the same concept. For instant, two groups of three queries can be written that gauge the same concept. Then the relationship between the two sets of three queries can be run to evaluate the reliability of the instrument. It is important to know how reliability test ought to be. Some of the guidelines to reliability are . 90 indicates high reliability, . 80 indicates moderate reliability, and . 70 indicates low reliability. High reliability is revealed where the majority of standardized tests show a score of . 90. For majority tests, low reliability is where for majority of standardized tests reveal a score of . 70. This is equivalent to 49 percent consistent variation. Reliability estimate of . 80 are moderate, where the estimate is below . 60, it is usually considered inappropriately low (Worthen, Borg and White, 1993). Validity refers to the strength of conclusions, deductions and proposals. A more formal definition by Cook and Campbell (1979) is that validity is the best estimate of the accuracy and inaccuracy available, of a provided deduction, proposal or conclusion. It is basically the degree to which a test does what it is supposed to do. It is the subjective finding that is based on experimentation and empirical pointers. There are two basic types of validity: face validity and construct validity. The face validity is the most basic and must be supported by other types. What is refers to is whether on the surface the measure seems to measure does what it is supposed to do. Face validity is the beginning point, and it is not valid for any use. The test has been used to indicate high reliability in punishing witches. From this test, it is estimated that 100,000 women argued to be witches were condemned and burnt. A measure that has construct validity is one that has been proved to measure what it is supposed to gauge. Criterion, which includes predictive and concurrent; convergence, and discriminative validity are elements that contributive to construct validity. Validity and reliability of the development of experimental evaluations is a basic part of the scientific method. Without a reliable and valid method, accurate scientific results and deductions cannot be obtained (Worthen, Borg and White, 1993). Freuds Theory of Personality vs. Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud was the first individual to come up with the theory that explains how the mind or psyche operates. He developed his ideas from working with people suffering from psychological disorders. He held the belief that personality is made up of three basic structures. The three are the id, the ego and the superego. The id according to Freud is the structure that has instincts. He argued that this structure is totally unconscious. This means that the id does not have any contact with the realism (Mischel, 1999). The second structure of personality comes up as a child experiences the demands and limitations of the realism. This structure is what Freud referred to as the ego. This according to Freud is the structure of personality that emerges to deal with the stresses and the constraints of the reality. It is considered the executive structure of personality. This is due to the fact that it utilizes reason in decision making. According to Freud the ego and the id lack morality. They do not take into consideration what is wrong or right. The moral structure of personality according to Freud is the superego. It is the branch that takes into consideration if an act is right or wrong. It is what is basically known as the conscience. The consideration of Freud about personality is that it is similar to an iceberg. This means that most of our personality is in existence beneath our degree of consciousness. His argument is that most of the personality exists in this form. In examining people’s personality, there is revelation of the evidence of ego and superego. Where the two are partly unconscious and partly conscious, the id is the unconscious, which means that it is one that exists below our awareness. The ego utilizes the defense mechanism to solve the conflict between wishes of the id and the limitations of the superego. Freud added that it is the contradicting demands of the personality structures that lead to anxiety. According to Freud, oppression is the strongest and most persistent defense mechanism. It is the mechanism that pushes the unacceptable demands of the id out of consciousness. It is basically the foundation of all the other defense mechanisms (Mitchell and Black, 1995). Neo-Freudian theorists are those who were in agreement with the ideas of Freud, but transformed them and used them to come up with their own theories. The ideas of Freud, though controversial have influenced a lot of theorists. Most of the theorists support the idea of the unconscious psyche and its significance in childhood. There are other ideas that the theorists did not agree with. Some of these thinkers include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, Erik Erikson and Karen Horney. Jung was in agreement with the idea of the unconscious mind. There are various reasons as to why most of these theorists disagreed with Freud. Erikson disagreed with the idea that personality is developed entirely from childhood experiences. There are a number of general similarities between the ideas of Freud and those of the neo-Freudian theorists. There was agreement with the fact that the unconscious is the key influence of character (Mischel, 1999). They also agreed that there is influence on personality from childhood events. The Neo-Freudian theorist like Jung agreed with the ideas of defense mechanism and dream interpretation. The neo-Freudian theorists disagreed with the argument that development stopped at age five or six. They also did not agree with instinctual drives. The other thing that they failed to agree on is the emphasis on the pathological factions of personality, degrading and pessimistic. From the point of view of one of the neo-Freudian theorists, the paper will evaluate Alfred Adler. He agreed with Freud on the importance of the initial years of one’s life. He also agreed with the unconsciousness of what drives us. He also agreed on the ideas of Freud on dream interpretation and analysis. His disagreement was based on the influence of the parents in a child’s development, people actively establishing their own destiny; availability of therapy goals; and the influence of superiority, not sexuality (Mitchell and Black, 1995). The Situation versus Trait Controversy The situation versus trait controversy is a topic that has been assessed, discussed, analyzed and resolved by very many psychologists in the past few years. This controversy is basically the disagreement on whether it the situation or traits that are responsible for the character of a person. The debate is said to have been started by Walter Mischel in his title Personality and Assessment. The book offered to empirical arguments about the approach to personality. His first argument was that character traits have a relationship of approximately 0. 30 with the way individuals behave in specific situations. The other argument is that the cross-situational constancy of character is about 0. 20 to 0. 30. His conclusion was that character traits are not positive predictors of the way people behave. He added that situations are more significant in people’s behavior. He also claimed that character traits do not exist in reality. This was supported by the argument that behavior changes with situation. His ideas arose a lot of debates on the issue with some people in support and others opposing. During this time, there were psychologists who were already carrying out researches to measure personality. The ideas of Mischel were supported by the critics of personality. They were basically behaviorism theorists who claimed that the best explanation of behavior was the environment. They based this argument on the notion of psychology being a science of tangibles and observables as opposed to intangibles like emotions, character traits and thoughts. For some time this idea was adapted quite a number of psychologists (Mischel, 1999). The other side of the debate took effect from the 70s, where psychologists began accepting the innate states like cognitions that influence how people behave. From this point of view, it is argued that the character traits are the ones that determine how people behave. This is the side of the debate that garnered more support that the situation one. Many of the psychologists now are in agreement with the fact that character traits exists in reality and that it is best suited in predicting behavior that the environment. The agreement is that both of the experimental arguments by Mischel were partially accurate, but the relationships approximations of 0. 30 between character traits and the way people behave, and behavior across environments, were given by other psychological researchers to be 0. 40. The supporters of the situation side of argument did not anticipate questions about the interpretation of their empirical results. It was not possible to tell whether it was 0. 30 or 0. 40 that was the small correlation (Fleeson and Noftle, 2009). It was also not possible to tell how this compared to the relationship between environments and how people behave. The answers were provided by two supporters of trait psychology, David Funder and Dan Ozer. They provided the answers by reviewing the different standard experiments in social psychology. These experiments were aimed at establishing how behavior is affected by environment. One of the studies evaluated was by Stanley Milgram. This is the study on obedience that employed counterfeit electric shocks to establish the way individuals reacting to hurting others. Here Funder and Ozer realized that the relationship between environments and the way people behave was from 0. 36-0. 42. This was almost similar to predictive capability of character traits. Another study that nullified the work of Mischel was the findings of Seymour Epstein. His findings suggested that in one complete behavior over a considerable period of time, as opposed to viewing single situations, the cross-situational constancy of the way people behave can be normally as high as 0. 80 to 0. 90. This means that the trait side of the controversy seemed to carry more weight than the situation side. The trait side of explaining behavior is what is followed by most psychologists currently, although studies are always being carried out (Fleeson and Noftle, 2009). References: Fleeson, W. , Noftle, E. E. (2009). The End of the Person-Situation Debate: an Emerging Synthesis in the Answer to the Consistency Question, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2 (4), 1667-1684. Mischel, W. (1999). Introduction to Personality. Sixth edition. Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace. Mitchell, S. Black, M. J. (1995). Freud and Beyond: a History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. New York: Basic Books. Worthen, B. R. , Borg, W. R. , and White, K. R. (1993). Measurement and Evaluation in the School. New York: Longman.

Approaches to Economic Development

Approaches to Economic Development THE ECONOMICS OF DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES Meaning of the term ‘Economic Development’ Actually, there are broadly two main approaches to the concept of economic development : The Traditional Approach or ‘The Stages of Economic Growth’ Theories of the 1950s and the early 1960s. The New Welfare Oriented Approach or ‘The Structural-Internationalist’ Models of the late 1960s and the 1970s. 1.  The Traditional Approach : The thinking of the 1950s and early 1960s focused mainly on the concept of the stages of economic growth. Here the process of development was viewed as a series of successive stages through which all countries had to pass. The propounders of this approach advocated the necessity of the right quantity and mixture of saving, investment and foreign aid to enable the LDCs to proceed along an economic growth path. They based their conclusions on the fact that this economic path historically had been followed by most of the more developed countries. Thus, in this period development had become synonymous with rapid, aggregate economic growth. This approach defined development strictly in economic terms and it implied : A sustained annual increase in the GNP at rates varying from 5 to 7 pcpa or more; Such changes in the structure of production and employment that the share of agriculture declines in both, while the share of manufacturing and the tertiary sectors increase. The policy measures that were suggested in this period were the ones which induced industrialization at the expense of agricultural development. The objectives of poverty elimination, economic inequalities reduction and employment generation were mentioned but only as a passing reference. In most cases it was assumed that the rapid gains in overall growth in the GNP would ‘trickle-down to the masses’ in one form or the other. 2.  The New Welfare Oriented Approach: Jacob Viner was probably the first economist (1950’s) to argue that an economy could not boast of having achieved economic progress if the incidence of poverty in that economy had not diminished. But it was in the early 1970’s that economists began to realize that Jacob Viner’s stance was relevant, as nearly 40 % of the developing world’s population had not benefited at all from the rise in the GNP and from the structural changes that had taken place in their respective economies during the 1950’s and 1960’s. Hence, in the 1970s it became necessary to redefine the concept of economic development. This modern approach views underdevelopment in terms of : international and domestic power relationships; institutional and structural economic rigidities; and, the proliferation of dual economies and dual societies both within and among the nations of the world. This approach places emphasis on policies that would lead to the eradication of poverty, provide more diversified employment opportunities, and reduce income inequalities. This approach insists that these and the other egalitarian objectives have to be achieved only within the socio-economic context of the respective growing economy. Thus today, economic development is a process whereby the general economic well-being (especially of the masses) of an economy is affected for the better. Meier defines economic development very concisely as: ‘Development is the process whereby the real per capita income of a country increases over a long period of time subject to the stipulation that the number below an absolute poverty line does not increase and that the distribution of income does not become more unequal’. This definition thus highlights the following aspects of the term economic development : 1.  Development is a PROCESS : Today, development implies the operation of certain socio-economic forces in an interconnected and causal fashion. This interpretation is more meaningful than merely to identify development with a set of conditions or a catalogue of characteristics. 2.  Development is a RISE IN THE REAL PER CAPITA INCOME : Since today the development of a poor country arises from a desire to remove its mass poverty, the primary goal should be a rise in the real PCI rather than simply an increase in the economy’s real national income, uncorrected for changes in the population. Simply increasing the real national income does not guarantee that there would be an improvement in the general living standards of the masses. If the population growth rate surpasses the growth of national output or even runs parallel with it, the result would be a falling or at best a constant PCI and as this would not be beneficial to the masses, it cannot be considered as development. 3.  Development can take place only over a LONG PERIOD OF TIME : This time period is significant from the stand-point of development being a sustained increase in the real income and not simply as a short-period temporary rise, such as occurs during the upswing of the business cycle. The underlying continuous upward trend in the growth of the real PCI over at least two or three decades is a strong indication that the process of development is on the right track. 4.  Development must lead to a DECREASE IN SIZE OF THE ABSOLUTELY POOR : Given the new orientation of the development thought, it is necessary that the quality of life of the masses must improve in fact improve to the extent of actually showing a fall in the amount of people living below the poverty line. This would automatically require, as suggested in the definition, a reduction in the economic inequalities in the economy. To achieve this goal, it is necessary that the policies implemented should actually divert economic power towards the economically vulnerable groups in the economy. The policies should aim at raising the real PCI, causing a diminution in economic inequality (ie., an alleviation if not an eradication of poverty), ensuring a minimum level of consumption, guaranteeing a certain socially relevant composition of the national income, reducing unemployment to a tolerable low level and removing regional development disparities. The framework of development as given by Charles P. Kindleberger and Bruce Herrick reiterates the improvement-of-the-masses emphasis of Meier’s definition. Kindleberger and Herrick maintain that economic development is generally taken to include : Improvement in material welfare, especially for persons with the lowest incomes, the eradication of mass poverty along with its correlates of illiteracy, disease, and early death; Changes in the composition of inputs and outputs that generally include shifts in the underlying structure of production away from agricultural and towards industrial activities; Organizing the economy in such a way that productive employment is general among the working age population and that employment is not a privilege of only a minority; and, Increasing the degree of participation of the masses in making decisions about the directions, economic and otherwise, in which the economy should move to improve their own welfare. The Economic Growth V/s Economic Development dEBATE The stress on the improvement in the quality of life of the masses has made it imperative to distinguish between the growth-oriented approach of the 1950s 1960s and the modern development-oriented approach of the late 1960s 1970s ie., the distinctions between Economic Growth and Economic Development must be highlighted. 1.  Definitional differences : Economic growth is a pure economic process whereby there is an increase in the economy’s GNP due to the increase in the productive capacity of the economy. Economic development, on the other hand, is a multi-dimensional process involving major changes in the social structures, popular attitudes and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty. 2.  Differences in the objectives : Economic growth aims at: Increasing the size of the GNP, without actually considering the social relevance of the composition of the national income. Removing all the obstacles that could come in the way of increasing the economy’s productive capacity, eg., removing the market imperfections that exist in the economy. Supplying the ‘missing components’ like capital, foreign exchange, technology, skills and management, which are needed for improving the economy’s productive capacity. Hoping that the benefits of the increased capacity of the economy would some how reach the masses. Economic development, on the other hand, aims at : Increasing the availability and widening the distribution of basic life-sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health and protection. Raising the level of living including, in addition to higher incomes, the provision of more jobs, better education and greater attention to cultural and humanistic values, all of which serve not only to enhance material well-being but also to generate greater individual and national self-esteem. Expanding the range of economic and social choice to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence, not only in relation to other people and nations, but also from the forces of ignorance and human misery. Thus, we see that the goals of economic growth are rather narrow in scope, while those of economic development are more broad-based in nature and in scope. 3.  Differences in the overall approach : a.  Quantitative versus Qualitative Approaches : According to Kindleberger, economic growth means more output, while economic development implies not only more output but also changes in the technical and institutional arrangements by which it is produced and distributed. Growth involves more output derived from greater amounts of inputs and with greater efficiency; but, development implies changes in the composition of the output and in the allocation of the inputs to the different sectors. Thus, growth is related to a quantitative sustained increase in the PCI accompanied by the expansion in its labour force, consumption, capital and volume of trade, while economic development is related to qualitative changes in economic wants, goods, incentives and institutions. b.  Revolutionary Speed versus Evolutionary Speed Approaches : Economic growth implies a certain degree of rapidity in the change process. Changes are introduced at a brisk rate and without a sufficient preparation of the socio-eco-politico foundations of the economy. Projects are literally imposed on the economy to create a global impression of progress. The masses are either not taken into confidence or are not considered vis-à  -vis the new projects. The rapid changes caused by the ‘Revolutionary Approach’ of economic growth ensure the failure of the system within a short time. Economic Development, on the other hand, adopts a more ‘Evolutionary Approach’ ie., it first ensures that the socio-eco-politico foundations are readied for the change. Hence, when the change actually takes place, it is readily and popularly accepted and supported. Thus, development involves creating a sense of awareness and a feeling of participation among the masses in the economy. This makes the development process painstakingly slow, long and drawn-out but it is this gradualness in approach that actually strengthens the economy in the long run. c.  Only Immediate Gains versus Also Futuristic Gains Approaches : The gains that accrue from economic development are far more sustaining than those made from growth, simply because of the differences in the way the future of the to-be-introduced projects are anticipated, analyzed and appreciated. Economic growth means increasing the economic activities, irrespective of whether the economy can continue supporting the newly introduced economic activity in the long run or not. For instance, along the lines of economic growth, an LDC would increase its current steel producing capacity, but it would not be able to keep up this new capacity for more than a few years. Hence, within a few years, the increased capacity would lay wasting leading to a wastage of scarce resources. Economic development, on the other hand, would consider the future sustaining capacity of the economy before actually increasing the steel capacity. If and only if the economy can continue supporting this higher rate in the future, the capacity would actually increase. Thus, economi c development guarantees that the scarce resources are currently used fruitfully and appropriately. d.  Only Economic versus Also Environmental concern Approaches : Economic growth, due to its rapid approach, more often than not, causes harm to the environment natural and/or social. Projects are undertaken without considering the cascading effects that could follow in the form of natural environment degradation, pollution, overcrowding, increase in crime rate, bottlenecks in infrastructural facilities, etc. For instance, an economy, for growth’s sake, could undertake an irrigational project without either making a thorough study of or without caring about its ramifications on the natural and social environment. Economic development, on the other hand, insists on the conservation and the protection of the natural and social environment. If a certain project could cause any sort of significant damage to the environment, that project would be either abandoned or altered. If the above mentioned irrigational project was approached from the development point of view, its site would be either changed, or its dimensions altered to prevent natural environmental harm; and if there is any sort of social environmental damage, like displacement of the inhabitants, then, rehabilitation projects would be undertaken, in consultation with the affected people. e.  The Trickle-Down versus The Direct-Attack Approaches : Economic growths, primary goal is to increase the productive capacity of the economy massively, irrespective of whether or not the poorer sections would benefit from this higher capacity. In fact, growth works on the assumption that the benefits that accrue from the increase in capacity would some how or the other trickle-down to the masses. Thus, growth makes no deliberate attempt ensure that the benefits do reach the poorer sections of the economy. The objectives of poverty eradication, economic inequalities reduction and employment generation are mentioned but only as a passing reference, as secondary gains that may or may not occur. Growth has a sort of an in-built tendency to bypass those very people in the economy who deserve to be supported the most by it. Economic development, on the other hand, by directly attacking economic misery, ensures that the benefits of the increase in the productive capacity actually reach the masses. The policies aim at diverting economic power towards the economically weaker sections of the economy. The policies directly aim at raising the real PCI, causing a diminution in economic inequality, ensuring a minimum level of consumption, guaranteeing a certain socially relevant composition of the national income, reducing unemployment to a tolerable low level and removing regional development disparities. 4.  Interrelationship between Economic Growth Economic Development : Although economic growth and economic development are indeed very different in their approaches, there exists an inter-relationship between them. It is difficult to conceive of development without growth. In low income countries, for instance, a substantial increase in the GNP is needed before they can hope to overcome their problems of poverty, unemployment and occupational distribution. However, it is possible to have growth without development, as growth is not concerned with the social aspects of an economy. In short, since development is a broader concept it encompasses growth and therefore can be said to be directly related to growth. Thus, development is growth with a human face. References: Todaro, M.Economic Development in the Third World. Chs 1 and 3 Meier, G.Leading issues in Economic Development. Ch 1 (1-A) Misra PuriEconomics of Growth and Development (4th Ed) Ch 1 Jhingan, M. L.The Economics of Development and Planning. (28th Ed) Ch 1 Mukherji, SampatModern Economic Theory Ch 50

A Decade Of Conflicts And Child Soldiers Sociology Essay

A Decade Of Conflicts And Child Soldiers Sociology Essay In the past decade due to deadly conflict around the world, children were more and more sacrificed as child soldiers. For the children the world is now more violent and violated place. In the last decade, 2 million children were killed due to conflicts. More than 12 million children were made homeless, while 6 million children have been injured or disabled. It is approximate that another 20 million children have been displaced within the boarders of their own countries. At any given time, children under the age of 18 years who have been forced or encouraged to take up arms as child soldiers is generally in the range of 300,000. Each year 8,000 to 10,000 children become the victims of land mines.  [1]   2. Child soldiers have featured prominently in international and internal conflict in recent years. In one of the most deadly conflicts, children feature most prominently in the terrorist campaign of Sri Lanka Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). They were fighting for an independence separate Tamil mono-ethnic state in north eastern Sri Lanka. They utilized both male and female fighters in guerrilla and terrorist attacks against military, political, economic, religious and cultural targets. 3. After the ethnic riots of Black July in 1983, there was a massive migration of civilian to India. The LTTE leadership decided to establish a training base in India for recruits less than 16 years of age from the civilian who fled to India. Initially the LTTE identified them (child soldiers) as Tiger Cubs. Then they received non-military training, most primary education and physical exercises. In 1984, LTTE changed the name of Tiger Cubs and formed new unit called Baby Brigade . It is nothing but the child soldier unit of LTTE fighting wing. 4. The child fighters were originally a part of the Baby Brigade but later LTTE gradually integrated them with other units to refill the heavy losses. Since April 1995, some 60 percent of LTTE cadres killed in combat were children. Olivichu, the LTTE monthly video release, supports those trends. A study by a United Kingdom based Sri Lankan researcher Dushy Ranatunge reveals that at least 60 percent of the dead LTTE fighters were under 18 years and are mostly girls and boys age in between 10 to 16.  [2]   5. At the time of researching on this topic, the government of Sri Lanka totally sweep away the LTTE. But there are no of war effected children and child soldiers are in IDP camps and rehabilitation centres . CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY PREVIEW 1. The aim of this presenting on rehabilitation of child soldiers to help integrate them in to society is to study the factors behind child soldiering, why they became as chilled combatant, the role of international community and the role of Government of Sri Lanka on this and how integrate them back to society. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 2. Most of the countries in the world face this problem due to internal conflicts. When it is studying there are so many reasons behind that. Due to non education and poor family back ground may cause child to joint with some terrorist organization as a chilled combatant. In Sri Lanka resent past LTTE has taken children by force for their terrorist activities. 3. In Sri Lanka though war is over there are number of chilled soldiers in IDP camps. Children make obedient and cheep soldiers capability of imposing terror on civilians and government forces. Child soldiers are forced to fight and are generally illiterate and from poor families. The children survive from combat are often physically injured and psychologically scared. Some of the factors covered as follows. a Who is the child soldier b Reasons behind child to became as soldiers c Child combatant is a biggest problem in the world d It is observed that most of the Asian countries face this problem e In Sri Lanka it is considerable numbers of child soldiers can be seen in the IDP camps f UNO and NGOs role in this issue g How to take them in to society as a normal children. I will society take them in to society as a children. J What are the steps that can be take to rehabilitate them. K Sri Lanka governments role on this issue. THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 4. Due to the war children suffered physically and mentally. As a nation we should take them in to the society same as other children. So that we should establish good environment for them and Sri Lankan government should have a sound national plan for that METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION 5. The methodology adopted in gathering data will be as follows: Extracts from child psychology publications. Extracts from newspapers and reports. Extracts from books published on child soldiering. Interviews and questionnaires. Related web sites of the Internet. Guidance and advice of experts on the subject. CHAPTER3 THE CHILDHOOD DEFINITION OF CHILD 1. According to the 1989, UN CRC, a child means every human being below the age of 18 years, unless under the law applicable in their case, the age of maturity is attained earlier. The age of maturity is a social, religious and cultural or legal device by which societies acknowledge the transition to adulthood and there is no necessary correlation between any of the age levels.  [3]   2. The idea of the child as a person under 18 years of age is widely accepted in international circles, even if a different terminology such as youth or young people may be a better ward to describe those in the crucial 15-18 age bracket whose physical, emotional and intellectual maturity is rapidly developing even as they continue to face certain legal constraints. Clearly, those under 18, no matter their individual capacities, are generally presumed not to appreciate fully the nature and consequences of their action. CHILD HOOD, A POTENTIAL TARGET 3. Although the Convention defined as a child in general as anyone below the age of 18 years, most young combatants are between 15 and 18. A majority of these trained child soldiers were boys, but significant numbers of girls are also engaged. 4. Though child rights activists are campaigning at international, national and local level to rise the age to 18, there is no international organization or mechanism to regulate against guerrilla and terrorist organizations recruiting children to their organizations. BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDREN 5. Their basic human needs of survival and growth to their full potential are largely, if not wholly, dependent for fulfilment, especially in their early years on the willingness and ability of adults to recognize and discharge their obligation to protect them. THE CONVENTION ON RIGHTS OF CHILDREN 6. Today children around the world suffer abuses in many ways. Child soldiering is one such situation. Children were kidnapped or forcibly recruited to many militant organizations to serve as soldiers. They were ill-treated when they were with militant groups. Once they surrender or captured by government forces they were imprisoned in inhuman conditions. Sometimes they were put in cells with adults without considering their rights as children. The Convention on the Right of the Child put childrens rights on the worlds agenda. It is the most widely confirm treaty in the world. Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1989, the Convention promises children around the world the right to life, liberty, education, and health care. 7. The Convention on the Rights of the child emphasized the importance of a happy childhood and it had been described the Rights of the Child very clearly and most comprehensively in its 54 articles guaranteeing for the first time social and economic as well civil and political rights adding new rights never before recognized. It is said that granting a Child the Right to information and freedom of expression would amount to allowing him/her as well, to decide on the life and organization of the family and society. CHAPTER 4 CHILD SOLDIERS DEFINITION OF CHILD SOLDIER 1. A child soldier is any person under 18 years of age who is a part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity, including but not limited to cooks, porters, messengers and anyone accompanying such groups other than family members.  [4]   REASONS FOR CHILD TO BECOME A CHILD SOLDIER 2. There is a very thin line that separates voluntary from forced recruitment. It is not possible to know exactly at what age a young person is capable of volunteering in the way we accept that of an adult. No one makes a decision in a vacuum and clearly a child can be susceptible to certain types of pressure from certain people and circumstances beyond their control. 3. Although forced recruitment of children is practiced in many countries (Burma, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Angola, Sri Lanka and Sudan), a majority of them are not so much forced. 4. Examining different contexts and taking into account the specific experiences of children will help us to draw a clearer picture of the child soldier in a given conflict. Forced recruitment of children happens because of shortages of adult soldiers, institutionalised discrimination against certain sectors of society, a perceived need to control the population. 5. There are many young people voluntarily join armed groups. In attempting to explain why children join armed groups. We can try to examine the followings:  [5]   a. Trigger factors. These are immediate happening of events, situations or exact reasons that cause a childs participation such as urgent or emergency individual needs or family problems and suggestions and pressure from peers and adults. Their social environment influences childrens subjective understanding of reality and these exert strong pressure on the children. b. Circumstantial factors. These are the complex order of situations or influences existing, occurring in and resulting from the childs significant interactions and relations providing context and history to their involvement and development. It could be a combination of any of the following: experience of neglect and abuse, poor parenting styles and weak family ties, negative experiences in school, etc. c. Contributory factors. These are factors that aggravate the current situation of children and young people in their given localities. These are the social, political, cultural and economic realities in society today such as poverty, social injustice, limited or no access to basic services, militarization of daily life, and structural violence. 6. Children are vulnerable to military recruitment because of their emotional and physical immaturity. They are easily manipulated and can be drawn into violence that they are too young to resist or understand. Technological advances in weaponry and the proliferation of small arms have contributed to the increased use of child soldiers. POVERTY AND FAMILY BACKGROUNG 7. Poverty and lack of schooling are said to be among key causes that draw hundreds of young boys and girls to took up arms in Sri Lankas North East and many are likely to face starvation if they quit the guerrillas.  [6]  If a significant number of child soldiers were indeed released this would augur well for the future. 8. Poverty is the main reason for joining the war. Due to domestic problems especially the financial difficulties, these children were prevented from schooling and were pushed by their own parents to join the LTTE organization. Mostly the children of high society like upper class and upper middle class or middle class are not recruited as child soldiers. Reason was that these families are well educated and guided well these prevailing conditions. TAMIL SOCIO-CULTURAL IDENTITY 9. In 1983 riots Tamil as a group were humiliated, the youths took up arms to prevent complete eclipse of the group identity. Language was the vital element of the Tamil identity. The identity develops from childhood through successive psycho-social stages to culminate in youth.  [7]   10. For younger girls, who experience the wide spread socio- cultural oppression against their sex, it is a means of escape and liberation. In many youngsters political repression, socio economic deprivation, frustration in life and fear of enemy has become prime motives if not compulsions for joining the militants. Another potential factor has been the oppressive Tamil-Hindu society where lower castes were suppressed by the so-called higher castes. For many from the lower castes joining the militants become a way out of this oppressive system. VIOLENCE 11 Laws such as the prevention of Terrorist Act and the Emergency Regulation allow for detention for long periods with out judicial process and sometimes violent act against such detainees. For example Bindunuwewa massacre. The great impact of this kind of structural violence and oppression is on the younger generation. These conditions create a sense of fear and hopelessness 12. Recruitment to the LTTE has remained largely voluntarily earlier. But the majority recruited may be children. LTTE denied that they used child soldiers. Likewise child recruitment by the LTTE was to become institutionalised after 1990. Older men were no longer joining.  [8]  In 1987 the LTTE banned other Tamil militant groups and started using young boys and girls as fighters. IMPACT OF CHILD SOLDIERING TOWARDS CHILDREN 13. War has be fallen a grave impact on a child development on attitudes, beliefs relationships with his countrymen and society, moral ethics and values and the mental framework for understanding society and understanding his own self and life itself. Children represent the future society in which these conflicts are waged but what will be the future and what can be expected from these nations where the horizon is masked by brutality and the youths of future generation are robbed of their golden childhood DIRECT IMPACT 14. Death and injury. a. Child soldiers are being used in more than thirty countries around the world. Children forced to take part in atrocities were often given drugs to overcome their fear or reluctance to fight. Because of their immaturity and lack of experience, child soldiers suffer higher casualties than their adult counterparts. Even after the conflict is over, they may be left physically disabled  [9]   15. Human right abuse. Sri Lanka has traditionally high level of education and training provided for children. But due to the past conflict many displaced children lose key identity document that is their birth certificate. Since birth certificate is an important document in Sri Lanka, displaced children are unable to gain full access to education. Not even that, they will not able to apply to all important national identity card which must be present at every check points and need for day to day work. 16. Displacement. a. Child soldiering and displacement are so integrally related. It demonstrates that it is extremely difficult to separate the impact of conflicts on children from the impact of small arms. Measures to ameliorate one situation often improve the other. b. Former child soldiers are vulnerable to displacement. They cannot simply return to their families and communities, and some families may reject them due to crimes committed and instead they become internally displaced person, refugee or seekers. INDIRECT IMPACT 17. Psychological trauma. a. Children appeared to be much more capable of retuning to normal after stress. But in the long term, when the armed conflicts continues, when no safe and secure not available for children, they may be put under enormous strain. Adults may not easily recognize the long-term responses of children to death, destruction and disruption, as children cannot verbally express their feeling and experiences. The way child react to trauma will depend on his/her age. The response also is influenced by the nature of the trauma. Some common traumatic experiences are separation anxiety, emotional disorders, sleep disturbances, unable to express and release their emotions verbally or otherwise, behaviour changes etc.  [10]   Anti social or psychopathic personalities are characterized by a conspicuous lack of conscience and human sympathy, rejection of social norms, emotional coldness, poor relationship, meaninglessness, cruel, callous and aggressive behaviour and poor impulse control. Delinquents, aggressive and psychopathic personalities may do well in a military set up where their energies and excess aggression can be diverted to national ends and their confinements to the Army proves to be a protection for society. d. Children complained of headaches, dizziness, fainting spells or chest pains with out a few days or months of joining the military movement. They were found to have repressed, separation anxiety for their parents and home or difficulty in adjusting to the rigorous training and militant life. e. The traumatic loss of family members, the experiences of cruelty, atrocity or barbaric behaviour, rarely leave visible scars but the effects are profound. Children may withdrew from contract, some become obsessed with violence or live on feelings of guilt or fantasies of revenge and become preoccupied with their role in past events. 18. Insecurity. a. Child soldiers are essentially displaced. Displacement for these children means insecurity and lack of access to choice, resources and opportunities. As child soldiers who cannot simply go home, it means risk of death, disability and serious psychological trauma. b. The social, psychological, moral and emotional deprivation they suffer, the persistent fear of loosing or the actual loss of parents are as damaging to childhood as being deprived of food, water and health care. They may have no idea that there could be better future. So many child soldiers have grown into adulthood without having known their family for long periods. 19. Culture of violence. a. Exposure of children during their formative years to insecurity, hopelessness, and violent deaths of loved ones as well as other cruel and aggressive acts and to the full paraphernalia of war with its instruments of destruction will permanently influence their development. b. So the delinquency has been found to be a common complication of exposure to war conditions. It is also likely that repeated exposure to violence, a family life ruled by terror and frequent disruption and a society in a continuous state of disequilibrium, where acceptance and praise to given to act of violence and recognition to the instruments of war teaches the child quickly the ways of violence 20. Lost opportunities. a. The presence of these widespread sophisticated weapons can have significant effect on future opportunities for children. The continued presence of these weapons in post conflict societies not only undermines a countrys ability to sustain peace but also represents a major stumbling block to sustainable human development. Children are severely affected by the lack of sustainable developments. b. Spread of two-decade conflict has caused untold suffering to millions of children caught up in armed conflict, not only during the conflict but also for reduction there after. The presence, proliferation and misuse of small weapons and light weapons have a devastating impact on children in conflict and post conflict societies. Cheap, easy to use and widely available these weapons fuel many contemporary conflicts and prolong, spread and deeper the consequences of conflict EFFECTS OF CHILD SOLDERING TOWARDS THE SOCIETY 21. The war has affected the functioning of the family unit in many ways. From the loss of one or both parents, separations particularly the children may it be Sinhalese or Tamil. Our Sri Lankan society is still based on the family. As such, the family tie is destroyed as a result of their child members being used in combat. Therefore, the society with dispersed families is destroyed to a greater extent. 22. The children from their young peer groups are separated by the war. This is what actually expected by the LTTE. Their parents are desolate and helpless and other family members are liable to ill treatment by the security forces. These children are being taught to obey only the LTTE leaders and to ignore the normal law of the country. After joining the organization they were motivated in such a manner that they were anxious to take revenge from the Sri Lankan forces and the Sinhalese people in the South. Most of them did not have any idea about so called independent Tamil state before they joined the organization. But after some times when they were captured only they had realized and understood the real Sinhala soldier and its hospitality and the importance of peace. 23. These children at the beginning, although they join the organization with willingness, face serious mental retardation because they lack the parental love and affection. There is no kind treatment or love from the LTTE organization even they fall sick. They are not treated well but are ill cared. Such treatment has affected the childs mind very badly. 24. Before this LTTE came into being, family setup, the connection between the parents and their children was so much good and it has affected the society very favourably. This has rewarded the society with very decent children. As such small children being taken out of the families, whether forcibly or willingly, have directly affected the families as well a CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS 1. Mainly the child soldiers are from the Tamil community, especially from the lower castes of oppressed Hindu Tamils. Initially Tamil youths joined the LTTE organization. However, in time the older youths escaped and migrated. Older men were no longer joining. Then the LTTE started using children and women as fighters recruiting them forcibly and willingly after motivated. 2. LTTE organization was one of the most dangerous front line in guerrilla organization in the world. They select children from the poor families, down trodden broken families, families of illiterate parents, and from the families of fallen heroes and families of poverty ridden and the children who are orphaned having lost their elders and relatives. LTTE was fully aware that they are violating child rights but continue to mislead telling that they come to them seeking recruitment. At the some time the LTTE organization terrorized the Tamil community and has laid down an unwritten law to the effect that every family must contribute a child of either sex to the organization.  [11]   3. Children separated from their families become mentally disabled or permanently sick and deprived of earning, food shelter and of family ties and education. Some of them have become drug addicted, violent and criminals. They have become a burden to themselves and to the Tamil society, to the whole country and to the whole world. On the other hand, their old parents neglected and isolated too have become another burden to society along with them. 4. War is the main reason for such a situation. The prime duty of the government, NGOs and the UN is to stop as well as evade children joining the war. Highlighting the violation of childrens rights and as well as a proper and correct rehabilitation while safeguarding the childrens rights. 5. At rehabilitation camps in Sri Lanka more than 100 former Tamil Tiger child soldiers are undergoing a year long rehabilitation course. There are nearly 300 child soldiers are integrate them in to society. Although the camp is surrounded by barbed wire and guarded by the Army, the inmates say the atmosphere inside is more like hostel. Many of them says that the LTTE took them by force.  [12]   CHAPTER 6 RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Education and awareness building are key elements in changing the reintegration of youth into post conflict societies and cultures of violence. Hence, the Government must provide effective programmes that provide peaceful alternatives to counter conflict, violence and crime and eliminate the effects of armed struggle on the psycho-social development of children and their communities. 2. As such the authorities must take action to create secure conditions within which children can be educated and interact socially. The government must spare sufficient amount of money for the development of schools, rebuilding of schools, public libraries, health care facilities, publication of books,and recreational areas as an incentive to develop community peace essential for the well being of children. 3. Government must bring forward an accepted economic plan viable and effective, giving war affected children an opportunity to rehabilitate, to have shelter, food and education by coordinating NGOs, agencies and other donor approaches under a rights based frame-work implimented in order to protect children in futuere conflict. 4. Special attention should be paid by the government to eliminate in future recruitment of children into armed forces and groups by achieving universal ratification and full implementation of the optional Protocol to the Convention on the rights of the child on the involvment of children in armed conflict without reservation and declaration of 18 as the minimum age for voluntary recruitments. 5. Also the Government should legalize the using of children under 18 years in armed conflict as a criminal offence, and must grant refugee status to children under 18 years. 6. Also provide primary health care and rehabilitative care of children with sound health conditions and specially the psychological care and facilitate the fullest possible social integration. 7. The Government should provide emergency relief to rehabilitate the agriculture livestock and fisheries and to re-employ or to employ them on other income generating enterprise to enhance local capacities to improve house hold security on a self-reliant and sustainable basis in the North and East. 8. Also the Government must take steps to start programmes dedicated to family unification for former child soldiers. 9. Prohibiting of the import of arms to groups that use child soldiers as well as eliminating economical assistance to the same should be started by the Government. 11. Provide special care and attention considering the impact of conflicts of children, being victims of the conflict, on girls in particular the specific abuses perpetrated against them, and must take actions immediately to protect the rights of children and the rights of women. 12. The government must facilitate all requirements to eliminate HIV/AIDS infection and other sexually transmitted diseases spread through rape and sexual violence and against girls with children born from rape. 13. Special attention must be taken by the Government to provide successful rehabilitation through social and medical support and counseling, as girls and boys fulfill different roles within the armed groups and also a gender analysis must be included essentially because the girls represent the reproductive force of a damaged community. 14. Government and civil organizations should prioritize protection of unaccompanied or separated girls, for example, organizing special accommodation and safeguards for such female children and others at particular risk of recruitment. 15. The Government should ensure universal birth registration to have everyone a Birth Certificate and in order to prevent recruitment under 18 by default. 16. The Government must ensure speedy registration procedures at Camps and Settlements. 18. Make effort to trace and reconcile former child soldiers with their families, using long-term institutional care only as a last resort. 19. The Government must take early action to restrict civilian possession of military assault-weapons and include restrictions on the age of the user with a minimum age required. 20. The Government should use the Media to give the real picture to the mass by exhibiting how and why these children join the war and by using the electronic media the State must systematically dismantle the structures of discrimination and violence against these young human beings and the Tamil minority, as well. 21 Evan after children leave the rehabilitation center and return to their families should follow the progress of their normal life. Should help them to catch up their missed schooling and should give them a vocational training with the support of NGOs. CONCLUSION 1. The ideological experiment of motivating children as combatants has been a highly successful one. The LTTE has been able to enhance its performance in battle by developing child units, a sizable cadre of the Baby Brigade, were consisting of children in the age group of 7-15 in both sexes. Most of them were recruited not willingly, but being motivated yet not knowing anything of a Separate State. Their performances were high.. 2. The United Nation Organization is the most powerful Organization, which can fund for rehabilitation program. It is only the UNO, which can take stern action against Terrorist organizations for employing children in war. However, Prabakaran has promised when they were fighting to Mr. Olara Otunu, which they will never employ children in war combats in future, they broke the promise in no time, but it seems that UNO has not taken proper action far against this incident. Fact is that, though these NGOs, about 82 in number, talk about the rights of the children does nothing about their rights. Their responsibility is to highlight internationally about the injustice done by the terrorist and avoid such happenings in future. The violations of childrens rights have to be enlightened and they must safeguard the childrens rights as well. A UN Special Envoy Maj Gen Patrick Camert had a visit to Sri Lanka to assess the situation of children affected by the conflict .He paid more attention on re-inte

The Alamo :: essays research papers

To understand the real battle, one must appreciate its strategic context in the Texas Revolution.qv In December 1835 a Federalist army of Texan (or Texian,qv as they were called) immigrants, American volunteers, and their Tejanoqv allies had captured the town from a Centralist force during the siege of Bexar.qv With that victory, a majority of the Texan volunteers of the "Army of the People" left service and returned to their families. Nevertheless, many officials of the provisional governmentqv feared the Centralists would mount a spring offensive. Two main roads led into Texas from the Mexican interior. The first was the Atascosito Road,qv which stretched from Matamoros on the Rio Grande northward through San Patricio, Goliad, Victoria, and finally into the heart of Austin's colony. The second was the Old San Antonio Road,qv a camino real that crossed the Rio Grande at Paso de Francia (the San Antonio Crossingqv) and wound northeastward through San Antonio de Bà ©xar, B astrop, Nacogdoches, San Augustine, and across the Sabine River into Louisiana. Two forts blocked these approaches into Texas: Presidio La Bahà ­a (Nuestra Seà ±ora de Loreto Presidio) at Goliad and the Alamo at San Antonio. Each installation functioned as a frontier picket guard, ready to alert the Texas settlements of an enemy advance. James Clinton Neillqv received command of the Bexar garrison. Some ninety miles to the southeast, James Walker Fannin, Jr.,qv subsequently took command at Goliad. Most Texan settlers had returned to the comforts of home and hearth. Consequently, newly arrived American volunteers-some of whom counted their time in Texas by the week-constituted a majority of the troops at Goliad and Bexar. Both Neill and Fannin determined to stall the Centralists on the frontier. Still, they labored under no delusions. Without speedy reinforcements, neither the Alamo nor Presidio La Bahà ­a could long withstand a siege. At Bexar were some twenty-one artillery pieces of various caliber. Because of his artillery experience and his regular army commission, Neill was a logical choice to command. Throughout January he did his best to fortify the mission fort on the outskirts of town. Maj. Green B. Jameson,qv chief engineer at the Alamo, installed most of the cannons on the walls. Jameson boasted to Gen. Sam Houstonqv that if the Centralists stormed the Alamo, the defenders could "whip 10 to 1 with our artillery." Such predictions proved excessively optimistic. Far from the bulk of Texas settlements, the Bexar garrison suffered from a lack of even basic provender.

Social Dynamics and Differences in the I- function :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Humans have evolved to live a social life in groups. By arranging social life in different ways, cultures affect psychological processes. -Shinobu Kitayama, Japanese psychologist of Kyoto University Society can be divided into two social factions: collectivists and individualists. And within these large divisions are smaller groupings reflecting the whole, such that the Greek systems fraternities and sororities are collectivists and those uninterested, non- members are individualists. The division is not explicit, but rather a continuum of varying degrees of collectivisict and individualistic tendencies (11). A broad definition of collectivism is the tendency to identify self with an in- group, or chosen group of people with common values and beliefs (11). These close and personal relationships allow collectivists to identify better with others self concepts, rather than their own, which corresponds to the tendency to act in ways in which it is personally disadvantageous, but advanta geous to the group (5) Individualism is the tendency to identify self without regard for others perspective of themselves, but rather seeking our unique selves (11). Individualist behavior has a tendency to surround enhancing their unique self and behaving in ways that are advantageous to the self (11). Collectivist and Individualist factions are actually cultures, with their own set of values and beliefs that guide each groups behavior. Humans sense of self is derived from existing social relationships, such that self is influenced by culture and behavior is one of the ways it is manifested in peoples lives (7). To understand where behavior comes from- to understand why people behave the way they do- means learning about values and beliefs (10). The concept of personal identity differs greatly from culture to culture; from Greek organization to Greek organization there are different sets of values and beliefs accentuated (10). Eight main purposes of sororities and fraternities are as follows: sharing relationships, loyalty to the Alma Mater, provide social activities, provide service projects, intellectual vitality, an outlet for inter- college associations and friendships, guidance for moral and ethical growth, and to provide opportunities for leadership (2). Each fraternity or so rority decides how much emphasis to place on each pursuit, which identifies different cultures within a culture, the collectivists faction. An overall goal/theme of organizations within the Greek system revolve around the notion of learning and understanding how other peoples minds work (2). This exemplifies a collectivist tendency to understand others self better than ones own self (14).

Brainstem Injuries and the Neuropsychologist Essay -- Neuropsychology

Brainstem Injuries and the Neuropsychologist The Neuropsychologist plays an essential function in assessment and rehabilitation after an injury to the head. Neuropsychologists essentially bear responsibility for testing and tracking the patients thinking ability. Below are key functions provided by clinical neuropsychologists: - Carrying out detailed assessments of cognition, emotion, behavior, and social competence; - Devising and implementing training programs; - Liaising with educational agencies/ employers to advise on the resumption of educational/ vocational life; - Advising on the management cognitive deficits/ disabilities; - Advising and providing long term care; - Providing psychotherapeutic input to address the emotional impact of injury and disabilities; - Facilitating personal, family, and social adjustment (Halligan 2003). A screening for a neuropsychological evaluation should be done as soon as possible after an injury to the brain or in this case, brainstem. A comprehensive evaluation is necessary if complaints and or problems persist. In most cases, an evaluation is performed biannually for the first two years, and as necessary, depending on the subjectivity of the patients status. An exam by the neuropsychologist typically involves a wide variety of tasks, most of which are done sitting at a table or at bedside in a hospital (www.neuropsychologycentral.com, 2002). The examination is non-invasive, and usually is not painful. The evaluation often takes 6 to 8 hours of face-to-face contact, but can vary widely depending on what information is being sought (www.neuropsychologycentral.com, 2002). Test results are used, depending o... ...y 1, 2005 from http//www.neuropsychologycentral.com/interface/content/resources /resources_interface_frameset.html. University of Florida (2005). Medical Informatics: Introduction to Clinical Neurology. Retrieved May 1, 2005 from http://medinfo.ufl.edu/year2/neuro/review/bsc.html. Joseph Landolfi (2005). Brainstem Gliomas. Retrieved May 1, 2005 from http://www.emedicine.com/NEURO/topic40.htm. Spencer, Rick (2005). Brain Injury 101. Retrieved May 1, 2005 from http://www.rickspencer.com/Headinjurylaw/brain101.htm. Theodosopoulos, Philip; Burton, Lisa; Wagner, Becky; Splitt, Nancee (2005). Retrieved May 1, 2005 from http://www.mayfieldclinic.com/PE-BrainTumor.htm. Reiter, Jamie (2003). Journey Toward Recovery: A Brain Injury Guide For Families. Retrieved May 1, 2005 from http://www.sdbif.org/Guide/SDBIF_Guide_Eng.pdf.

New Entry to the Market and Game Theory

Consider a firm that is contemplating entry into a new market. What contribution, if any, can game theory make to the analysis of the economic viability of such a strategy? Refer to the critical time line, reaction functions and the Nash premise in your reply. Introduction: Management decisions lack the full information, so they are bounded rationality decisions. Companies are players in a game, and the game dimensions are defined in terms of geography and product. So any new entrant will try to enter the market he will play a game in two dimensions geography and product (example Apple entering the smart phone market).The entrant has to decrease its price from the market price so he can guarantee a portion of the market share (steal market share from the incumbents). The incumbents have two options: either to compete or to accommodate. We introduce the principles of the Game Theory as follows: Critical Timeline: Management can observe behaviour as signals and as patterns in the signa ls. Patterns do emerge in the observed behaviour, patterns in price movements or patterns to do with achieving growth through acquisition. The patterns create a critical timeline (CTL) of observed actions and as the CTL unfolds, it reveals a strategy.The new entrant has to observe these patterns and management types of the incumbents over a considerable CTL, to forecast their reaction to his entry, is it going to be a competitive or accommodative reaction. Incumbents for sure faced previous entrants with some kind of reaction when they tried entry, the new entrant can study and analyze this CTL to forecast the possible reaction of the incumbents especially that firms management usually they repeat their type over and over again especially when it succeeds.Reaction functions: When the new entrant will enter the market, the reaction from the incumbents will be either passive (Cournot model) to balance the quantity in the market, i. e. to adjust his output so that both firms produce th e market need and they both sell all their output so that the price will not go down and the profit does not go down as well. Or, the reaction will be aggressive (Bertnard model) by cutting the price of the new entrant and accordingly start a price war. 1) Cournot model reaction function:In this case, the incumbent will think this way: since the entrant entered the market and already chose a price. If I choose to cut price and enter a price war we will all end up in loss (profit is zero), so the best reaction is to choose an output that will guarantee me a profit-maximizing given the entrant's output. So after the entrant enters, the incumbent will decrease his output as per the Reaction Function diagram shown below. Because the incumbent thinks if he increases his output then the market price will go down and profit will go down with it.Knowledge of the market here is crucial, to reach this profit-maximizing condition the market has to be in which firms must make production decisio ns in advance, are committed to selling all their output. This might occur in the majority of production costs are sunk or it is costly to hold inventories, in this environment firms will do all what it takes to sell all its output. The Cournot equilibrium here makes positive profit for the firms. 2) Bertnard model reaction function:In this case, the entrant when enters the market will enter in a lower price than incumbents to steal their customers and grant a market share for himself. The incumbents will react by reducing the price even more and the rivalry between the firms will go on and will result in a perfectly competitive outcome. In this condition the competition will be fierce because the products are perfect substitutes. If the products are differentiated, price competition is less intense. (Besanko 2010).In this Bertnard model the capacity is not constant as in Cournot. This model pertains to markets in which capacity is flexible that firms can meet all of the demand that arises at the prices they announce. If firms products are perfect substitutes, then each Bertnard competitor believes that it can steal massive amounts of business from its competitors through a small cut in price, when all competitors think this way, in equilibrium, price-cost margins and profits are driven to zero (Besanko 2010)The diagram below shows the Bertnard Reaction function when products are differentiated where both firms reach a Bertnard Equilibrium that are well above marginal cost and so they both make profit, if their products are perfect substitutes to each other then the price will be driven to marginal cost and profit will be zero. Nash Premise: If the incumbents chose the non accommodative approach then either they will reach the zero profit situation if the products are perfect substitutes, or they might reach an equilibrium (Nash) if the products are somehow horizontally differentiated.Nash Equilibrium is reached when both firms reach a situation when each of t hem chose a strategy and no one can benefit by changing his strategy while the other players keep their unchanged, then the current set of strategy choices and the corresponding payoffs constitute a Nash equilibrium. i. e. Firm 1 making the best decision it can, taking into account Firm 2's decision, and Firm 2 making the best decision it can, taking into account Firm 1's decision. (Wikipedia. com) Example:Beef-processing industry in the US, there were 4 industry leaders, then came JBS SA from South America and purchased Swift & Co. to form JBS Swift & Co. then the quantity produced increased (excess capacity). Capacity had to drop otherwise the outlook would remain bleak. Tyson decided to close its factory at Emporia, Kansas pulling 4000 head of capacity from the market. After this closure the capacity and the beef prices have stabilized. (Besanko 2010) We can see in this example how when a new entrant emerged (JBS Swift & Co. ) the capacity increased caused the prices to drop.We c onclude that the market capacity here is fixed (Cournot model) and when the incumbents saw that effect they knew for fact that reducing the output will benefit everybody. So, Tyson Co. closed one of its factories, the total output in the market dropped caused the prices to stabilize again. Here this is a kind of Cournot equilibrium that is reached. The incumbents went through an accommodative approach in this case rather than competitive. Conclusion: The entrant has to observe closely the Critical Timeline of the market's incumbents before entering this market.According to his forecast of their reaction (whether it will be accommodative or competitive) he has to build his strategy whether he can survive or not. The entrant has to study the market demand (capacity), is it going to be affected by the new entry by absorbing the extra quantity (can lead to Bertnard) or the demand is fixed (that can lead to Cournot). The entrant's strategy had to be built on the Reaction Functions foreca sted from the incumbents where from there the entrant can calculate the Nash equilibrium value and the possibility to reach it or the other possibility to reach the zero profit condition.